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BuiltWithNOF

„Guarantee of origin“ for Renewable Energies –
Experiences and Outlook


Dr. Th. Weller

 


Abstract:
„Guarantee of origin“ is a term coined in the EC-directive 2001/77/EC in 2001. But certification activities to verify the source of renewable energies existed since the end of the nineties, and have proved to be very effective. The EC-directive will change the marketplace, and we assume that besides a lower level “EC guarantee of origin” higher level “guarantee of origin labels” will also be used by producers of renewable energies to achieve competitive advantage.
 


History of „Guarantee of origin“


In the not too distant past, electricity was just electricity. Its source didn’t matter. With the growing awareness of the environmental advantages and disadvantages of the various generation technologies of electricity “green electricity” became a differenti-ating factor: some customers were willing to pay more for energy from renewable sources than for energy produced in fossil or nuclear power plants. However, they wanted to have assurance that this amount of electricity, for which they were paying higher prices, was produced by hydropower, wind or biomass. In other words they asked for a “guarantee of origin”.
 

As an answer to that demand „green labels“ were created. Green power products that wanted to be certified by such a label had to prove from the cradle to the grave – from the power plant to the final consumer – where the green energy was coming from (see fig.1). Additionally, those labels asked (in various degrees) for an added environmental value of the product. TÜV SÜD, the large German certification com-pany, has been among the first to offer such labels („EE01“ and „EE02“); other ex-amples are the Swiss Naturemade label or the Italian Energia Verde label.
 

But not all regional distribution companies had their own renewable resources. They needed access to renewable energy from other producers. This led to a wholesale market in green energy (see fig.2). Again, producers selling to distribution companies had to prove the source of their electricity. The result was the introduction of another class of labels: these are called „guarantee of origin labels“, even though that term was not yet used in the beginning. In general they do not include environmental aspects but focus on the source of energy. TÜV SÜD established such a label in 1999 under the name Erzeugung-EE („generation from renewable energies“).

 

The importance of such guarantee of origin labels was rapidly increasing when countries like the Netherlands, England or Italy introduced tax-exemption programs or minimum quota for renewable energies. The cheapest available renewable energy in Europe was hydropower from large power plants, and therefore large volumes of hydropower were in demand on the wholesale markets – in the form of either physical transmission or virtual certificates. But also biomass-based energy was offered, especially in Scandinavia. Again, the source of energy had to be proved to the buyer, i.e. all such energy needed a „guarantee of origin“.
 

The next step in the history of the guarantee of origin was the directive 2001/77/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 September 2001 („promotion of electricity produced from renewable energy sources in the internal electricity mar-ket“). Article 5 states that “member States shall, not later than 27 October 2003, ensure that the origin of electricity produced from renewable energy sources can be guaranteed as such within the meaning of this Directive according to objective, trans-parent and nondiscriminatory criteria laid down by each Member State. They shall ensure that a guarantee of origin is issued to this effect in response to a request.”


This leads to two different concepts:
- Voluntary guarantee-of-origin schemes (called “label GoO” in the following)
- State-controlled guarantee-of-origins (called “EC-GoO” in the following).

It is worth while to summarize past experience with guarantee of origin certificates and to look into the prospective future of those two concepts.

Guarantee of Origin and TÜV SÜD


TÜV SÜD is one of the largest certification companies in Germany and active in some 60 countries worldwide. It started the implementation of energy certifications in 1997 and since 1999 has certified the production of about 150 companies in 7 European countries (predominantly in Austria, Germany, Switzerland, France). All renewable resources are being covered. Based on market demand, hydropower plays the most important role and most of the certifications apply to hydropower.


Fig. 3 indicates number and size of all renewable power plants which were certified during the last 5 years. Their capacity range spans 6 orders of magnitude: from small 2 kW photovoltaic systems up to storage hydro power plants with more than 1.000 MW. The scope of our certification tasks went from single plants to the complete hydropower portfolio of some of the largest European hydropower producers. Accordingly the certified production per customer ranges from less than 100 MWh to more than 10 TWh (see fig.4)

 

 

 

Up to the present, all these certifications have been voluntary. They are label-GoOs, based not on the EC-directive, but on the TÜV criteria catalogue (“Erzeugung-EE”) which in many aspects is more precise than the still rather vague EC-GoO guideline. One important difference is the attitude of the certified company. TÜV requires that promotion of renewable energies and of their growth constitutes one of the key objectives of corporate policy. Another difference is that the TÜV label-GoO certification process is based on well defined rules. During an initial onsite assessment the auditors perform a check of all aspects of the generation, but also of the marketing of the pro-duced energy. They take great care to prevent “re-dying”, i.e. the selling of non-renewable energy as renewable energy, or the double-selling of renewable energy. Therefore special focus is put onto the exact determination of the “certifiable energy production”. This is the amount of renewable energy which can be offered on the market. It is not just the net production of the plant (gross production minus auxilia-ries and losses, including the entire pumping consumption of pumped hydro power plants) that has to be considered, but also all other commitments that reduce the amount of “marketable” energy (see fig. 5). The audit starts from the individual meter and follows the entire path up to the final aggregated energy production number which can be found in the yearly report of the company. Especially the energy calculation of large pumped hydropower plant systems can lead to extremely sophisticated calculation algorithms, particularly when they are owned by several partners which manage their own “virtual reservoirs”.


An annual control assessment is obligatory, during which it is checked how the planned actions were realized and whether the amount of sold renewable energy corresponds with the certified production.
 

Once a user is certified the real process of creating a “guarantee of origin” certificate is straightforward. In the past energy buyers have frequently accepted the TÜV certification as a generic proof and did not even ask for a case-by-case attestation. After the introduction of the EC-GoO the energy producer will deliver all production data which are relevant for the desired “guarantee of origin”. The TÜV specialists compare his data with their files and sign the attestation if the data match.

Experiences
 

The owner of a certified renewable energy plant profits twice from a guarantee of origin certification. One aspect is the experience he gains from the inspection of his plant, i.e. the benefit of the certification process itself.


Biomass-plants, wind farms and photovoltaic systems are in most cases newly built and therefore in an excellent status. Hydropower plants, however, can be up to 100 years old. Most of them are well-kept or at least in a stable maintenance status. But often the problem is encountered of being blind to the shortcomings of one's own company – especially when the same people are responsible for a plant over a long time span. If the meter is the cash register of the hydropower producer, then many producers do not seem to be interested in cash. Electrical diagrams 40 or 60 years old, uncalibrated and undocumented meters, and totally outdated metering forms are not unusual. All too often knowledge resides in the head of a single specialist, but not on paper. This is where the external auditor can give helpful hints and propose changes. They are often very easy to realize, yet may prevent confusion and wrong data in the future.
 

A new class of potential problems has been created by the unbundling of power companies. Production, metering, sales, marketing and trading functions have not yet set up new interfaces and the external consultant sometimes is the only person who touches all those functions. A point of special concern is the rather careless handling of definitions like „production“. The gross production figure of the plant manager may suddenly become the net production figure in the sales department. The difference may be less than 1% in a wind farm, but up to 10% in a biomass plant or even more than 25% in a pumped storage hydropower station. GoO- checks have often proved to result in a transparent and uniform view on all production data from which the entire company profits.
 

The second aspect that is beneficial to the operator of a certified hydropower plant is the value of the certificate.
 

As indicated earlier, voluntary label-GoOs were the basis to sell green energy on a wholesale level. In the future that role will be taken over by EC-GoO as defined by the individual European states. In any case those guarantees of origin are the indis-pensable entry ticket into the growing green energy market. Selling green energy nationally or internationally today is an interesting source of income for many European renewable energy producers. The rapid growth in trading volume is supported by the tendency towards selling virtual certificates (for example within the RECS system) instead of transmitting energy physically. At present, in Central Europe mainly hydropower from large and written off hydropower plants is traded. But there is also a higher valued niche market for hydropower from new and / or small hydro-power plants.
 

Beyond that GoO-certificates are also an indispensable part of energy disclosure according to Article 3 (6) of directive 2003/54/EC: “Member States shall ensure that electricity suppliers specify in or with the bills and in promotional materials made available to final customers the contribution of each energy source to the overall fuel mix of the supplier over the preceding year“.

Additionally, the image aspect of a high level certificate is an aspect of major importance. For most of the smaller companies which are certified it is even the prevailing factor. With „guaranteed renewable energy“ the producer achieves positive feedback from his customers, business partners, authorities and the local community. The TÜV certificate is used in office buildings and plants and the logo is used on flyers, stationery, buildings or even on cars (see picture).

 

 

Guarantee of origin – next steps
 

The EC directive 77/2001 has instigated activities not only in the member states, but also in non-EC countries like Switzerland, Norway and Sweden. The transformation of the directive into local decrees and guidelines is on its way in all these countries, and already realized in some of them.
 

The extent of the prescribed scope of inspection and of the test coverage is still an open question. Two scenarios are possible:
1. All involved states agree equally on a comparatively high level of quality.
2. All (or at least many) involved states agree on a base level implementation.
 

The first case would result in a Europe-wide correspondence of EC-GoOs with to-day’s label-GoOs and the disappearance of the need for a separate voluntary label. However, this scenario is quite unlikely. High quality means additional costs for every producer. There is little reason to assume that all involved governments and industry organizations would accept such an approach.
 

Looking at today’s situation, case 2 seems much more realistic. It seems that important aspects like onsite-inspections, the guarantee of delivering according to a given power schedule or the subtle differences between gross production, net production and marketable production will hardly be taken into account by most countries. This means that there will remain enough room for higher quality “label-GoOs”, which provide those additional features. These are a superset of EC-GoOs (see fig.7). An EC-GoO fulfills some legal requirements, but it is no marketing tool. In contrast, a “label-GoO” certified producer fulfills all the requirements of the EC-GoO, but gains im-portant additional benefits. One of them is learning from the audit process. Another once again consists of the image aspect: the producer can prove and communicate (e.g. by the label-logo) that he has done better than average and that his energy bookkeeping is totally transparent. Particularly the certified “guarantee of delivering according to a given power schedule” may become an important business argument in competitive situations. As a third aspect base-level EC-GoOs most probably will not fulfill the proof of origin requirements for green power products and insofar cannot be used for that purpose.

 

The summary is that high level GoO-certifications for hydropower plants have displayed a lot of advantages in the past. Internally, because they help the producer to discover weak spots in energy bookkeeping. Externally, because of the image effect and as an enabling certificate for green power markets. This is not likely to change much when EC-GoOs come into effect. Most probably two levels of GoOs will continue to exist: EC-GoOs, which comply with state legislation, and label-GoOs, which go beyond EC-GoOs and will be used to create a competitive advantage against those power producers who present EC-GoOs only.

 

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More than just electricity: marketing the benefits of hydropower

Dr. Thyge Weller, fairenergy@aol.com

Introduction

Hydropower is an important part of today’s energy mix. But it is much more than just electricity. Whereas in the past we were used to sell hydropower just as ”electricity” we are now able to market also its other benefits – be it included in the energy price or be it as separate item, materialized in the form of ”green certificates”. The various approaches to this goal are outlined in the following overview.

One option is to exploit the storage capabilities of hydropower to cover peak power demand and to balance demand and supply. Fluctuating renewable energy sources as well as the overall energy market volatility create new challenges. New business concepts are just evolving which exploit this increased role of hydropower.

Several other marketing options are covered in more detail in this report. ”Voluntary markets” and ”enforced markets” are analysed. A voluntary market is the area of green power products. Individuals (and to some lesser degree also institutions and industrial companies) order electricity from renewable energies. They pay voluntarily an uplift to support environmentally friendly technologies. This segment is complex and not easy to enter, but it creates interesting chances for small as well for large hydropower.

”Enforced markets” are based on national or supranational governmental decisions changing the established business framework. Here we analyse the following areas:

  1. Import of hydropower into those countries, where a minimum quota for renewable energy has been established or where tax reductions apply for renewable energies
  2. Use of hydropower certificates to change the energy mix in the EC-wide mandatory ”energy disclosure” scheme
  3. Generation of CO2 emission reduction certificates by JI / CDM-projects, and use of those certificates within the European CO2 emission trading system.

To be successful in one of those segments some homework has to be done first. The added value of hydropower is closely linked to the credibility of the producer and / or vendor and to the transparency of their business processes. Ideally there exists a well documented sequence of steps from the meter in the hydropower plant to the “total production figure” in the annual report of the company. Additionally, a secure process is needed to avoid double selling. Energy production and sales of green certificates have to be synchronized. We list the main deficiencies we have found when certifying the production of about 600 hydropower plants.

At the end there is one important message. Hydropower is a rising star. Its environmental benefit can be marketed successfully. Hydropower owners should take care not to give that benefit away for free. Sooner or later they will be able to sell it.

     

1. The benefits

Hydropower enjoys high public acceptance because of the following reasons:

  • It is a sustainable resource. Not unlimited – there is only a limited amount of run-of-river capacity available – but sustainable. Water is used by power plants, not consumed. Hydropower will be with us as long as mankind exists.
  • It does not emit CO2 or other green house gases. The minor CO2-load during the construction period of a power plant is spread over its extremely long life time and therefore negligible in relative terms.
  • It is available in many parts of the world. Unlike oil and gas, hydropower can be produced in many countries, which reduces political and economic risks.
  • It has no unmanageable risks. It is not ”risk-free” and there is a non-negligible probability of hazard. The weight of the consequences, however, is much lower than for nuclear energy.

There are two more benefits, which are less visible in the public, but important for the energy industry:

  • Hydropower can be stored – provided, there is enough storage capacity.
  • Hydropower is a very efficient energy storage for electricity. No other storage system can offer an efficiency factor of 85% or even more.

In the past we were used to sell hydropower just as ”electricity”. Today, we are in the enjoyable situation to market also its other benefits. The various approaches to this goal are outlined in the following overview. It is just a short summary, but may nevertheless help the reader to exploit the full business potential of hydropower.

 

2.   Summary of Marketing Options

 

The straightforward approach to market hydropower is to sell ”green electricity”, i.e. electricity generated by hydropower plants (line 1 in fig. 1). But in the last years people started to separate such green energy into an abstract ”environmental benefit” and the physical energy (line 2 in fig. 1). Such energy has no longer the characteristics of hydropower and is therefore called ”grey (or anonymous) energy”. The environmental benefit is materialised in the form of ”green certificates”. One certificate typically comprises the benefits of 1 MWh hydropower energy.

 

 

 

     Fig. 1:  three options

     to exploit the benefits

     of hydropower

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A third approach shouldn’t be overlooked (line 3 in fig. 1). Marketing the benefits of hydropower can also mean to exploit the positive reputation of this renewable energy in order to improve the image of the energy producer or the energy consumer. This opportunity is drastically underestimated by most companies within the hydropower business; but this is a separate topic and will not be covered in this report.

Another option which I want to touch only shortly is the growing use of hydropower plants with reservoirs to cover peak power demand and to balance demand and supply. The increasing contribution of fluctuating renewable energy sources (wind and solar) as well as the overall energy market volatility create a fascinating application area for hydropower. The energy industry has just started to understand the technical challenges of this development; there is much less progress in developing new business concepts which exploit this increased role of hydropower.

There are several other marketing options which are covered in more detail in this report. They can be segmented into ”voluntary markets” and ”enforced markets”. A voluntary market is the area of green power products (see section 3). ”Enforced markets” are based on national or supranational governmental decisions changing the established business framework. They are covered in section 4 (quota and taxes), section 5 (electricity mix disclosure) and section 6 (emission trading and JI / CDM-projects).

 

3.   Green Power Products

 

Hundreds of green power products are being offered, especially in Europe and North America. The vendor guarantees that he produces and feeds into the grid at least as much renewable energy as the buyer consumes. Some green power products concentrate on specific generation technologies like photovoltaic or biomass, but due to the fact that hydropower is the cheapest abundant renewable energy most products are hydropower-based – totally or at least partly.

Green power products are primarily bought by household customers. They are willing to pay more per kWh for green energy. Also private or municipal institutions (typically non-profit) are among the buyers. They all want to know where their energy comes from and how their uplift is being spent. Rather new is the tendency of large companies to buy green energy to improve their environmental image. Their main interest is price. 0,1 - 0,3 €ct / kWh seems to be the maximum uplift most of them are prepared to accept.

But also the penetration of household customers depends heavily on the uplift. With no or a very small uplift, penetrations of 20% – 40 % have been realized. With an uplift of 1 – 2 €ct / kWh, penetration goes back to 0,5% – 1% of households; in areas with favourable economic conditions up to 3 % are possible.

Hydropower producers have the option to participate in that market

  • by selling to wholesale traders
  • by selling to green power vendors
  • or even by selling to large green power consumers directly

The chances for additional profit increase with closeness to the end-consumer. We therefore recommend the second or even the third approach. Local, small and new hydropower plants are best suited for regional green power products. Here is a good chance to achieve good prices. More limited chances exist for large, written-off power plants. They are best suited to provide energy for large industrial customers, as long as a low uplift is accepted by the vendor. Spectacular headwater areas are helpful to source international green power products. Examples are the Swiss ”Pure St. Moritz Power” product or the French ”AlpEnergie” product.

Credibility is a key issue in the green power market for household customers and private / municipal institutions. The success of a green power product depends considerably on the commitment to re-invest the uplift into new renewable power plants or at least into some other support for renewable energies. Customers are very sensitive to the feeling that their dedication is (mis-)used. There are quite some cases where a careless CEO-interview has ruined a complete green energy marketing concept. On the other hand, credibility can be strengthened by certifying the green power product with a renowned product label.

 

4.   Quota and Taxes

Beyond the need of supply for green energy products national regulations have led and will continue to lead to a growing wholesale market, including imports and exports across borders. Those regulations can exist in the form of minimum quota for renewable energies, which have to be fulfilled by national distribution companies, or in the form of tax exemptions for renewable energies.

Italy and Great Britain are such ”quota countries”. But while Italy accepts imports from abroad this is not possible in the British ROC-system. Therefore at present export of hydropower in Europe is concentrated towards Italy. Bilateral contracts prevail and few is known about the price per MWh.

Two years ago, the major flow of hydropower exports went to the Netherlands. At that time tax reductions were valid in the Netherlands for the consumers of renewable energy, including imports from other countries. By those tax reductions Dutch distributors were able to offer green energy for the price of ”standard energy”, resulting in high demand. With a change in national regulations the Dutch import market collapsed completely end of 2004.

Today, there is one other European country where (under some restrictions) hydropower can be imported. This is the British LECs-market (LECs = Levy Exemption Certificate). Electricity from renewables is exempt from the climate change levy and British wholesale traders and distribution companies are therefore prepared to pay some uplift for hydropower.

Above examples prove that the wholesale market offers some opportunities to market hydropower. But they also demonstrate that the windows of opportunity may be rather short. They may be suddenly opened, and even more abruptly closed. Constant contact with market experts is needed to stay informed and to exploit those chances.

 

5.   Electricity Mix Disclosure

 

According to the decision of the European Community end-consumers of electricity should be able to assess what type of electricity they are buying. This is why in directive 2003/54/EC the following was defined:

”Member States shall ensure that electricity suppliers specify in or with the bills and in promotional materials made available to final customers the contribution of each energy source to the overall fuel mix of the supplier over the preceding year”.

This rule entered into force in the beginning of 2004 or 2005, depending on the legislation process of the individual countries. Some countries (e.g. Austria) started in 2004. In other countries some companies revealed voluntarily their electricity mix ahead of time (see EDF’s mix in fig. 2). Whether the disclosed information will change the buying attitude of the customer is yet unclear, and therefore the impact of the directive onto the wholesale market is not yet known. But it is evident that a pie-chart with a large share of renewable energies is what most customers would like to see. As hydropower is the cheapest renewable energy the purchase of additional hydropower certificates will be the preferred approach to embellish the electricity mix. First such deals are known to us.

 

 

 

 

             Fig. 2      EDF’s

             electricity mix, as

             disclosed in EDF’s

             internet site

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

However, each MWh of hydropower can be marketed just once. Integrated utilities with production capacities which are active in the distribution segment as well as in energy trading, have to decide where to move their green certificates: into the trading business or into the distribution segment. Short term profit can be produced in trading, whereas a better electricity mix may guarantee long term customer loyalty. In any case, demand for hydropower will grow due to electricity mix disclosure, and therefore green certificate prices will rise.

 

6.     Emission Trading and JI / CDM-projects

To cut emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases the European Union defined maximum CO2-quota per country. Existing emitters got a defined number of CO2 emission rights; reduced quota will be defined for each year to come. If the emitter reduces emissions below his ceiling he can sell surplus emission rights. If he emits beyond his ceiling he has to buy missing emission rights.

Today emission rights are traded in various places (EEX, EXAA, Powernext, ...). The current value (begin of August 2005) is between 20 and 25 € / to CO2 (see fig. 3).

Emission trading has only an indirect effect on hydropower. As most electricity is produced from fossil sources, CO2-certificates are needed to increase production. The cost of those certificates is factored into the electricity price. The price rises and therefore hydropower, which does not need CO2-certificates, becomes more competitive.

 

 

 

Fig. 3   price of EU-

emission allowances

on the German stock

exchange EEX

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

But there is another aspect which is closely linked to the emission trading concept. Part of the Kyoto protocol are the two ”flexible mechanisms” JI (joint implementation) and CDM (clean development mechanism). Under certain conditions CERs (certified emission reduction units out of a CDM-project) or ERUs (emissions reduction units out of a JI-project) can be transformed into CO2 emission rights. The details of such a bridge between the two systems emission trading and Kyoto protocol are defined in the EC ”linking directive”.

JI-projects will start in 2008. A hydropower plant which has been built as part of an officially accepted JI-project can generate an additional income by ERU-sales which is about 5% of investment cost. Today’s low certificate prices reflect the uncertainty what will happen between now and 2008. With a value between 5 and 8 € / to CO2 they are therefore considerably lower than the price of today’s CO2 emission rights. As Judith Plummer from the World Bank puts it: carbon finance is a nice sweetener but not a honey pot.

 

7.       Don’t forget your homework

Fossil, nuclear and renewable energy all look alike. The added value of hydropower is therefore closely linked to the credibility of the producer and / or vendor and to the transparency of their business processes. Ideally there exists a well documented sequence of steps from the meter in the hydropower plant to the “total production figure” in the yearly report of the company. Additionally, a secure process is needed to avoid double selling. Energy production and sales of green certificates have to be synchronized.

 

Even if this sounds trivial it is not always the case. We have certified the production of some 600 hydropower plants with a capacity of about 27 GW and found some critical items which are all too often neglected:

  • often the gross and net production of a hydropower plant is not clearly defined – sometimes even not known.
  • the roll-up of the individual hydropower plants into the yearly total production is often inconsistent. The mutation of technical data within the marketing departments of large companies is a still unexplainable miracle.
  • meters are the cash register of the utility. But often nobody cares for meters, their accuracy and their integrity.
  • production certification by an independent third party helps to improve credibility and to make business life easier. While in some countries most hydropower plants are certified, there are other countires where producers do not yet exploit that opportunity.

If all those points are resolved, the management of the hydropower producer is well positioned to act fast and flexibly. It can guarantee and prove its production in front of any potential customer as well as any third party.

 

8.   Final Recommendations

Hydropower is a rising star. It offers benefits which no other energy can offer. Such benefit has a value, and it should never be given away for free. Even if there is no immediate opportunity, sooner or later a professional and well-organized hydropower producer will be able to sell it. There are many options – but some of them have a rather short life span. Hydropower vendors therefore need to keep constant contact with the marketplace, by using in-house experts or external consultants.

Changing markets offer risks and chances. There is no reason why the owners of hydropower cannot create new, creative approaches to market their product. One example could be wind energy. Hydropower is a natural partner of wind energy – here is the storage, there is unlimited energy. Thinking about new forms of partnership might be rewarding.

One last item which happens to be often neglected. When selling hydropower relying on old contract templates may be disastrous. Sales contracts have to be worded much more carefully than in the past:

  • when ”selling electricity” any energy may be delivered, be it fossil / nuclear based or even grey (anonymous). The environmental benefit stays with the seller.
  • when ”selling hydropower” or ”selling electricity from the [hydropower] plant XYZ” hydropower has to be delivered. The environmental benefit is included, i.e. it can’t be sold separately.

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Island - Erneuerbare Energien im Überfluß

Dr. Thyge Weller, fair energy

 

Kann es das geben, ein Land, dessen Strom ausschließlich durch erneuerbaren Energien erzeugt wird? Sigfús Jóhannsson, der beim isländischen Netzbetreiber Landsnet die Erzeugung aller Kraftwerke überwacht, muss einen Moment nachdenken: “Wenn Sie es genau wissen wollen - eine Gasturbine haben wir in Island, als Notfallsystem für eine Aluminiumproduktion. Ob sie schon wirklich im Einsatz war, weiß ich im Moment nicht”. Nein, sonst habe man keine fossile Energieproduktion. Man habe ja Wasserkraft und Geothermie.

In Island ist vieles anders. Das zeigt schon der Anflug auf den Flughafen von Reykjavik. In Island liegen Europas größte Gletscher, allein der Vatnajökull ist größer als alle Alpengletscher zusammen. Zum größten Teil ist das Land aber grau-schwarz, aus Lava gebaut. Vor 20 Millionen Jahren erst tauchte Island aus dem Atlantik auf. Hier wandern zwei tektonische Platten, die europäische und die amerikanische, Jahr für Jahr um 2 cm auseinander. In den Trennfugen strömt flüssiges Magma nach oben und vergrößert in immer neuen Vulkanausbrüchen die Insel. Die 290.000 Isländer leben in einem engen Streifen entlang der Küste, zwei Drittel allein im Großraum Reykjavik. Das Innere Islands ist praktisch unbewohnt. Landwirtschaft lohnt sich nicht, der größte Teil der Bevölkerung lebt direkt und indirekt vom Fischfang. Dieser geht jedoch zurück; heute stammt das größte Wachstum aus der Nutzung der erneuerbaren Energien.

Im Januar 2005 fiel das Energiemonopol

Der Elektrizitätsmarkt in Island war bis vor kurzem fest in der Hand des staatlichen Energieversorgers Landsvirkjun. Er allein durfte Kraftwerke bauen und Elektrizität erzeugen. Ein halbes Dutzend regionaler Versorger waren für die Belieferung der Endkunden zuständig. Seit Januar 2005 können sich jedoch Großkunden mit einem Verbrauch von über 100 GWh ihren Elektrizitätslieferanten auswählen; ab 01.01.2006 soll die Wahlfreiheit für alle Verbraucher gelten. Der Netzbetrieb wurde ab Januar 2005 von Landsvirkjun abgetrennt und der unabhängigen Landsnet übergeben.

Beim Aufbau der isländischen Elektrizitätsproduktion war ganz selbstverständlich Wasserkraft die erste Wahl. Landsvirkjun baute in den letzten Jahrzehnten insgesamt 8 Wasserkraftwerke, die mit einer Gesamtleistung von 1.100 MW und einer Jahreserzeugung von 6.800 GWh ca. 85% der Stromerzeugung liefern. Die Höhenunterschiede sind – mit alpinen Maßstäben gemessen - relativ bescheiden. Búrfell, mit 300 MW das größte Wasserkraftwerk Islands, hat nur eine Fallhöhe von 115 m. Aber Wasser gibt es dank der Speicherung durch die Gletscher zu jeder Jahreszeit genug.

Die regionalen Verteiler hatten von der Geographie her kaum Zugang zur Wasserkraft. Sie saßen dort, wo ihre Kunden waren: im flachen Gebiet um Reykjavik. Andererseits ist dies eine der aktivsten geothermischen Zonen Islands. Zwei Regionalverteiler, die Stadtwerke von Reykjavik (Orkuveita Reikjavikur) und die ganz im Südwesten Islands gelegenen Fernwärmewerke von Sudurnes (Hitaveita Suðurnesja) nutzen die Erdwärme schon lange, um Warmwasser für ihre Kunden zu erzeugen. Da lag es nahe, auch noch den Schritt zur Stromproduktion zu gehen. Zunächst geschah dies nur für den eigenen Bedarf, denn das konnte nicht untersagt werden, und dann so allmählich – halb inoffiziell - auch für einige Kunden. Auf diese Weise entstanden die Geothermie-Kraftwerke Nesjavellir und Svartsengi. Insbesondere Svartsengi, das mittlerweile knapp 30 Jahre lang Strom aus Erdwärme produziert, ist eine wahre Fundgrube für den Geothermie-Fachmann. In mehreren Stufen wurde dieses Kraftwerk immer wieder erweitert; dabei laufen die ersten Gegendruckturbinen von 1977 noch genauso wie die 1989 eingebauten ORC-Turbinen. Der vorläufig letzte Ausbau erfolgte 1999 mit einer 30 MW-Kondensationsturbine; eine weitere derartige Turbine soll in den nächsten Jahren folgen.

Ein solcher schrittweiser Ausbau ist möglich, da Heißwasser und Heißdampf an den richtigen Stellen im Übermaß vorhanden ist. Wenn eine erhöhte Nachfrage besteht, werden einige weitere Bohrlöcher in die Tiefe getrieben, und schon ist jede benötigte Zusatzkapazität gewährleistet. Friðrik Friðriksson, der Regionalchef von Hitaveita Suðurnesja, arbeitet mit Zahlen, von denen deutsche Geothermie-Interessenten nur träumen können: “Wenn wir nicht sicher sind, auf 200° C heißen Wasserdampf zu stoßen, fangen wir gar nicht mit dem Bohren an. Bei 1500 m Bohrtiefe kommen wir auf etwa 5 MW pro Bohrloch, bei 2000 m auf etwa 10 MW. Für unsere derzeit in Bau befindliche Anlage in Reykjanes gehen wir 2.500 m tief. Bei der nächsten geplanten Anlage wollen wir dann 4.000 m tief bohren und nehmen an, dass wir dort superkritischen Dampf vorfinden, was zu 50 MW pro Bohrloch führen kann”.

Stromerzeugung aus Geothermie soll sich verdoppeln

Kein Wunder, dass die Erzeugungskosten für isländischen Geothermiestrom weit unter den Erzeugungskosten deutscher Versorger liegen. Nachdem die rechtlichen Beschränkungen zum Ausbau eigener Kraftwerkskapazitäten gefallen sind, planen beide Regionalversorger daher auch einen beträchtlichen Ausbau ihrer geothermischen Erzeugung (siehe Tabelle). Wenn die Kraftwerke Hellisheiði und Reykjanes nächstes Jahr in Betrieb gehen, wird sich allein dadurch die Stromerzeugung aus Geothermie in Island verdoppelt haben.

 

Bild: Die  “blaue Lagune” entstand aus abgeleiteten Kraftwerkswasser und ist heute ein Kur- und Heilbad, an dem die Kraftwerksgesellschaft beteiligt ist.

Ein weiterer Ausbau ist geplant. Er wird aber nur in dem Maß erfolgen, in dem neue Kunden gefunden werden können. Denn auf dem kleinen isländischen Markt besteht keine wesentliche Nachfrage nach mehr Elektrizität. Die Unternehmen bemühen sich daher um zusätzliche Verbraucher. Die attraktiven Strompreise haben bereits ausländische Investoren aus Branchen wie der Aluminium- oder Ferrosiliziumproduktion nach Island gezogen. Exportorientierte Industrien mit hohem Energiebedarf verbrauchen bereits mehr als die Hälfte der im Land produzierten Elektrizität. Auch das neue Geothermie-Kraftwerk in Reykjanes wird zum Betrieb einer neuen Aluminiumschmelze benutzt.

Aber die Konkurrenz im eigenen Land ist stark – in Form der Wasserkraft [Abbildung: Gullfoss – der bekannteste Wasserfall Islands; Foto: Weller]. Nächstes Jahr wird Landsvirkjun Islands größtes Wasserkraftwerk, Kárahnjúkar, im menschenleeren Osten des Landes in Betrieb nehmen. Mit einer Leistung von 690 MW wird es das isländische Energie-Erzeugungspotential um 50% vergrößern. Zeitgleich mit diesem Kraftwerk wird in seiner Nähe die größte Aluminiumfabrik Europas erbaut. In einem eigenen, neuen Tiefseehafen am Reydarfjord wird das Bauxit aus Australien, Brasilien oder Guinea angeliefert, das dann mit preiswertem Wasserkraftstrom zu Aluminium geschmolzen wird. Dieses auf den ersten Blick aufwendige Vorgehen rechnet sich durchaus, da die Transportkosten für das Bauxit vielleicht ein Prozent der gesamten Kosten zur Herstellung des Metalls ausmachen, die Energiekosten aber 20 bis 30%.

Das größte Hindernis für eine Ausbreitung der Geothermie in Island ist damit eine andere erneuerbare Energie. Die Wasserkraftbefürworter machen auch keinen Hehl daraus, dass sie die Geothermie sowieso für erheblich aufwendiger und anfälliger halten als die Wasserkraft. Solange erst ein Viertel der isländischen Wasserkraftressourcen genutzt sei, sehen sie keinen Sinn im Ausbau der Geothermie. Dem setzen die Geothermie-Betreiber aber eine ganze Reihe von Argumenten gegenüber. So ist Hreinn Frimannsson von Orkuveita Reikjavikur überzeugt, dass man erst am Beginn der großtechnischen Nutzung der Geothermie stehe. Mit der bisher gesammelten Erfahrung, neuen Bohrmethoden, tieferen Bohrlöchern und verbesserten Materialien werde man in zukünftigen Geothermie-Kraftwerken nochmals erheblich preisgünstiger Strom erzeugen als heute. Die Umweltbeeinträchtigung und der Widerstand der Öffentlichkeit sei weitaus geringer als bei Wasserkraftwerken, und das zu erschliessende Potential sei mit rund 200 TWh/a fast zehnmal größer als bei der Wasserkraft.

Bild: Das geothermische Kraftwerk Krafla erzeugt nur Strom

Die weitere Entwicklung wird aufzeigen, welche dieser beiden Technologien sich im liberalisierten Markt besser positionieren kann. Klar dabei ist aber, dass eine weitere erneuerbare Technologie unter diesen Umständen kaum ein Chance hat – die Windenergie. Bisher dreht sich kein einziger Rotor in Island. Das liegt nicht an den Windverhältnissen - Hitaveita Suðurnesja hat mehrfach Standorte mit Jahreswindgeschwindigkeiten von 8,5 m/s in 50 m Höhe ermittelt, bei denen eine Volllaststundenzahl von 3.500 realisiert werden kann. Aber kein Investor hat Interesse daran, in einem Land, das seine Energieerzeugung schon zu 100% auf erneuerbare Energien gründet, vergleichsweise teuere und damit nicht absetzbare Windenergie zu erzeugen.

Eine Alternative zur Verlagerung stromintensiver Industrien nach Island ist sicherlich der Export von Energie. Die Variante eines Stromkabels nach Schottland oder Norwegen wurde bereits mehrfach geprüft, aber immer wieder aus Kostengründen verworfen. Genauso intensiv wird die elektrolytische Erzeugung von Wasserstoff diskutiert, der dann per Tanker in alle Teile der Welt transportiert werden kann. Auch hier erscheint möglichen Investoren das Risiko aber noch zu hoch; immerhin zeigt eine Wasserstofftankstelle in Reykjavik [Abbildung: “Hydrogen2”, Foto: Weller] Islands Interesse an diesem Thema. Auch das Thema Arbeitsplätze spielt hier eine wichtige Rolle: Island möchte seine Jugend im Land halten. Das geht besser, wenn über preiswerte Energie neue Industrien angezogen werden, als wenn Energie exportiert wird. Die Umweltvorteile der erneuerbaren Energien lassen sich ja auch in diesem Fall in Form “grüner Zertifikate” exportieren. Um in diesen Markt einzusteigen, haben die isländischen Energieerzeuger erst vor kurzem die Erzeugung ihrer Kraftwerke durch den Münchner TÜV SÜD zertifizieren lassen.

Der Ausbau der erneuerbaren Energien in Island wird daher weiter gehen. Schade nur, wenn die Gasturbine zum Einsatz käme – dann müsste Sigfús Jóhannsson zum Jahresende feststellen, dass der Anteil von Geothermie und Wasserkraft nicht bei 100% liegt, sonder nur bei 99,99%.

 

Bild: Im Geothermie-Kraftwerk Svartsengi wird Strom und Fernwärme erzeugt

 Technik der Geothermie in Island

Die geothermischen Kraftwerke Islands liegen alle nahe dem zentralen Spaltensystem des Landes [Abbildung “location plants”; Grafik: Weller]. Entsprechend häufig gibt es dort auch kleinere Erdbeben – teilweise mehrere tausend im Jahr. [Abbildung “Kraftwerk Bjarnaflag”, Foto: Nürnberger].

Das Kraftwerk Krafla (60 MW) [Abbildung “Krafla”, Foto: Nürnberger] erzeugt lediglich Strom; es erfolgt keine Fernwärmeauskopplung. Es gibt 22 aktive Bohrlöcher, 12 Bohrlöcher wurden – vor allem durch Vulkanausbrüche – unbrauchbar. Die tiefste Bohrung ist 2.200 m.

In Nesjavellir wird Fernwärmenutzung und Stromerzeugung vereinigt. Das Gas-Dampfgemisch aus den Bohrlöchern wird in separiert und erreicht in getrennten Leitungen das Kraftwerk mit einer Temperatur von 190° C und einem Druck von 12 bar. Nach der Energieabgabe in Turbinen wird in Wärmetauschern erhitztes Wasser in das Fernwärmenetz von Reykjavik eingespeist. Nur ein kleiner Teil des entnommenen Wassers wird zurück injiziert; der größte Teil wird in einen See abgeleitet.

Ähnlich ist das Vorgehen in Svartsengi [Abbildung: Svartsengi; Foto: Weller]. Auch hier wird sowohl Elektrizität wie Fernwärme erzeugt. Die geologischen Bedingungen sind jedoch völlig unterschiedlich. Durch poröses Lavagestein strömt sowohl Meerwasser wie auch Grundwasser in eine aktive Zone mit einer Temperatur von 240°. Aus einigen der ca. 2000 m tiefen Bohrlöcher wird nur Dampf entnommen, aus anderen ein Gas-Dampfgemisch. In Separatoren wird in Dampf und Wasser getrennt; der Dampf wird direkt den Generatoren zur Stromerzeugung zugeleitet. Das Heißwasser enthält einen hohen Mineralienanteil und kann daher nicht direkt in die Fernwäremleitung eingespeist werden. Zum Teil wird über ORC-Turbinen weitere Elektrizität erzeugt, zum Teil wird thermische Energie für das Fernwärmenetz über Wärmetauscher ausgekoppelt. 80% des entnommenen Wasservolumens wird reinjiziert; 20% werden oberirdisch abgeleitet.

Aus dieser Ableitung entstand eher zufällig eine der bekanntesten Attraktion Islands, die “Blaue Lagune” [Abbildung “blue lagoon”; Foto: Hitaveita Suðurnesja]. Das Wasser sammelte sich unmittelbar am Kraftwerk (siehe Bild) in einem See, der durch die Mineralien eine intensiv blaue Farbe erhielt. Die Lagune faßt vier Millionen Liter Wasser, das sich in 24 Stunden komplett erneuert. Immer mehr Besucher entdeckten diesen künstlichen geschaffenen dampfend-heissen Badesee für sich, und es wurden Heilwirkungen z.B. gegen die Schuppenflechte festgestellt. Darauf wurde dieser Bereich systematisch als Kur- und Freizeit-Einrichtung ausgebaut. Er wird von einer eigenen “Blue Lagoon” Gesellschaft betrieben, an der das Kraftwerksgesellschaft mit beteiligt ist.

Bestehende Geothermie-Kraftwerke:

Name

Besitzer / Betreiber

Erbaut

Leistung in MW

Jahresproduktion 2004 (GWh)

Krafla

Landsvirkjun

1977 / 1997

60

417

Bjarnaflag

Landsvirkjun

1999

3

6

Nesjavellir

Orkuveita Reikjavikur

1998 – 2001

90 (geplant: 120 MW)

586

Svartsengi

Hitaveita Suðurnesja

1977 - 1999

46

377

In Bau befindliche Geothermie-Kraftwerke:

Hellisheiði

Orkuveita Reikjavikur

(2006)

80 (2006)
120 (2012)

 

Reykjanes

Hitaveita Suðurnesja

(2006)

150

 

 

Zeigt Island Deutschlands Zukunft?

Island ist das einzige Land Europas in dem das Angebot an erneuerbaren Energien weit über die regionale Nachfrage hinausgeht. Wasserkraft und Geothermie sind so preisgünstig, dass eine spezielle Förderung à la EEG überhaupt nicht zur Diskussion steht. Damit ist Island ein Kristallisationspunkt für Entwicklungen, die uns im kontinentalen Europa noch bevorstehen.

Zum einen zeigt sich in Island, dass in der Energiewirtschaft - wie auch überall sonst - die Erzeugungskosten die bestimmende Größe sind. Das Staatsunternehmen Landsvirkjun hat sich auf Wasserkraft konzentriert, weil diese – zumindest in der Vergangenheit – am kostengünstigsten zu erzeugen war. Der reichlich vorhandene Wind wird solange nicht ausgenutzt werden, wie er teurer als Wasserkraft und Geothermie ist. In Deutschland hat der gemeinsame Kampf gegen die Interessen der Energiewirtschaft ein gemeinsames Handeln der Verbände der erneuerbaren Energien hervorgebracht. In Island, ohne einen gemeinsamen Gegner, vertritt jeder Energieerzeuger die erneuerbare Technologie, über die er verfügt. Überträgt man diese Erfahrung auf Deutschland, so könnte gefolgert werden, dass eine Windenergie-Branche, die zu wettbewerbsfähigen Kosten Strom erzeugen kann, sich bald von den noch förderungsbedürftigen anderen erneuerbaren Energien absetzen wird. Mit der Wettbewerbsfähigkeit einer erneuerbaren Energie könnte die heutige Aktions-Gemeinschaft aller erneuerbaren Energie-Segmente auseinanderfallen.

Aber auch viele andere Fragen treten vor diesem Hintergrund auf. Treibhausgase machen nicht vor Landesgrenzen halt. Wie sinnvoll ist die aufwendige Suche in Zentraleuropa nach verwendbaren geothermischen Anomalien, wenn in Island seit Menschengedenken Dampffahnen den Weg zu riesigen Energiereservoiren zeigen? Neue isländischen Geothermie-Kraftwerke fangen mit ihrer Leistung dort an, wo die deutschen Projekte schon lange aufgehört haben. Während bei uns ORC-Anlagen als neue Technologie eingeführt werden, laufen einige alte ORC-Turbinen in Island aus Nostalgie-Gründen noch weiter; eigentlich produzieren sie aber unter den dortigen Bedingungen viel zu teuer und es sind zur Zeit keine neuen ORC-Anlagen geplant.

Wie sinnvoll ist eine Investition in Windkraftanlagen im deutschen Binnenland, wenn mit der gleichen Anlagenkapazität in Island die dreifache Energiemenge erzeugt werden kann? Um es noch komplizierter zu machen: was bedeutet es denn, wenn ein Ausbau der erneuerbaren Energien in Island weitere stromintensive Industrien in dieses Land zieht? Ist dies nur positiv, weil anderswo fossile Energien zum Einsatz kämen? Oder wird durch die preiswerte erneuerbare Energie aus Island nur eine zusätzliche Nachfrage nach den entsprechenden Produkten erzeugt, also keine Einsparung an Ressourcen und CO2 erzielt? Könnte dies nicht eine Verlagerung von Arbeitsplätzen – z.B. aus der deutschen Aluminium-Branche – bedeuten? Also Geothermie und Wasserkraft als Jobkiller für Deutschland?

Diese Fragen sind allgemeingültig. Sie müssen generell im Zusammenhang mit der Weiterentwicklung der erneuerbaren Energien angegangen werden. Bisher drücken sich die deutschen Verbände vor einer solchen Diskussion, für die die isländische Situation als konkreter Einstiegspunkt dienen könnte.

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